Current Issue

International Journal of Martial Arts & sports - Vol. 12
[Paper List]

[ Article ]
International Journal of Martial Arts - Vol. 11, No. 0, pp. 1-40
Abbreviation: IJMA
ISSN: 2287-8599 (Online)
Print publication date 01 Mar 2026
Received 15 Jan 2026 Accepted 12 Feb 2026
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51222/injoma.2026.03.11.1

LAW ENFORCEMENT USE OF FORCE: A NARRATIVE REVIEW ON THE UTILITY OF MARTIAL ARTS IN AMERICAN POLICING
Richard O. Segovia Ph.D., Ed.D
School of Education, Liberty University, Lynchburg, VA

Correspondence to : eMail: Rsegovia1@liberty.edu

Abstract
Problem:

The lack of real-life fight training can yield inappropriate physical and psychological stress responses that result in unreasonable use of force by law enforcement officers.

Purpose:

This narrative review synthesizes the peer-reviewed literature on police assaults, use of force, law enforcement training, and martial arts in law enforcement with some focus on Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) training and the literature's methodological issues to provide evidence on the potential utility of martial arts training as a critical force options component mitigator of risk and liability.

Method:

A qualitative narrative review was appropriate and implemented for this narrative review.

Results:

This narrative review examines Brizin and Kernspecht's general theory of combat, which is principally concerned with utilizing various strategies and tactics to achieve desired outcomes, and analyzes law enforcement training, martial arts in law enforcement, and methodological issues found in the literature. In addition, assaults on law enforcement officers and unreasonable use of force are discussed in detail, including culturally relevant examples from recent police use of force encounters.

Conclusion:

Robust and rigorous force options training, particularly martial arts training, can play a significant role in giving officers confidence when dealing with high-stress situations and could reduce the amount of inappropriate application of force by a police officer, which often results in injury or death of a suspect, or severe liability to the officer's employer.

Application in Law Enforcement:

Training police officers in the philosophical and physical aspects of martial arts may improve their defense and restraint skills and decision-making involving force use.

Keywords: Brazilian jiu-jitsu, police officer training, general theory of combat, feedback, dialogue
References
1. Aborisade, R. A., & Oni, S. F. (2021). Female offenders as victims of gendered violence by officers of the Nigeria police. Victims & Offenders, 16(8), 1182-1204.
2. Akinyetun, T. S. (2021). Reign of terror: A review of police brutality on Nigerian youth by the Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS). African Security Review, 30(3), 368-385.
3. Alispahić, B., & Hadžikadunić, A. (2020). Assessment of motor skills in the selection of police officers. Sports Logos/Sportski Logos, 18(32).
4. Anh, N. V. (2022). Choose exercises developing speed power for men students application martial arts team at people's security academy. International Journal of Humanities and Education Development (IJHED), 4(5), 85-90. https://mail.theshillonga.com/index.php/jhed/article/view/427
5. Arsenault, A., & Hinton, T. (2014). Police use-of-force issues in Canada. In: P. Stanislas (ed.), International perspectives on police education and training, pp.138-157. Routledge.
6. Baldwin, S., Bennell, C., Andersen, J. P., Semple, T., & Jenkins, B. (2019). Stress-activity mapping: physiological responses during general duty police encounters. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2216. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02216/full
7. Ban, N. H., Son, D. A., Tuan, V. M., & Hanh, N. T. T. (2021). Quality of life among police officers and soldiers of Nam Dinh provincial public security department in Viet Nam, in 2019-2020: a study using Whoqol-Bref instrument. PalArch's Journal of Archaeology of Egypt/Egyptology, 18(1), 3943-3951. https://archives.palarch.nl/index.php/jae/article/view/6212
8. Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1977). Social learning theory (Vol. 1). Prentice Hall.
9. Bolander, R. P., Neto, O. P., & Bir, C. A. (2009). The effects of height and distance on the force production and acceleration in martial arts strikes. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, 8(CSSI3), 47. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3879635/
10. Bondarenko, V., Okhrimenko, I., Yevdokimova, O., Sydorchuk, N., Dzhezhyk, O., Boichuk, I., ... & Bloshchynskyi, I. (2020). Professional skills and competencies of the future police officers. International Journal of Applied Exercise Physiology, (9 (5)), 35-43. https://eprints.pharm.zt.ua/id/eprint/17/
11. Bowleg, L., Boone, C. A., Holt, S. L., del Río-González, A. M., & Mbaba, M. (2022). Beyond "heartfelt condolences": A critical take on mainstream psychology's responses to anti-Black police brutality. American Psychologist, 77(3), 362-380.
12. Brizin, D. and Kernspecht, K. (2014) Towards a general theory of combat. The Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology, 14 (4)
13. Brizin, D., & Kernspecht, K. R. (2014). Introduction to combat logic–a general theory. Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology, 14(4), 24-30. https://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-bd57bbab-b137-4ba2-ad89-c89f12250383
14. Bueno, J. C. B., Andreato, L. V., Silva, R. B., & Andrade, A. (2022). Effects of a school-based Brazilian BJJ programme on mental health and classroom behaviour of children from Abu Dhabi: a randomised trial. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1-16.
15. Chanin, J., Welsh, M., & Nurge, D. (2018). Traffic enforcement through the lens of race: A sequential analysis of post-stop outcomes in San Diego, California. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 29(6-7), 561-583.
16. Clausewitz, C. (2008). On war (M. Howard & P. Paret, Eds.; 1st ed.). Princeton University Press.
17. Clede, B. and Parsons, K. (1987), Police Nonlethal Force Manual: Your Choices This Side of Deadly, Stackpole Books
18. Cortright, C. E., McCann, W., Willits, D., Hemmens, C., & Stohr, M. K. (2020). An analysis of state statutes regarding the role of law enforcement. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 31(1), 103-132. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0887403418806562
19. Cynarski, W. (2017). Towards a general theory of fighting arts. Physical Activity Review, 5, 83-90. https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/1031740
20. Dawes, J. J., Kornhauser, C. L., Crespo, D., Elder, C. L., Lindsay, K. G., & Holmes, R. J. (2018). Does body mass index influence the physiological and perceptual demands associated with defensive tactics training in state patrol officers?. International journal of exercise science, 11(6), 319.
21. Desmedt, J. C., & Marsh, J. F. (1990). The use of force paradigm for law enforcement and corrections. United States Department of Justice.
22. Duarte, J. D. R. D. S., & Ferraz, A. D. F. (2022). Studies on martial arts, fights and sports combat with police: a systematic review. Scientific Electronic Archives, 15(3).
23. Dworzecki, J., & Nowicka, I. (2019). Counter-terrorism units of the police force of Slovak Republic. Scientific Journal of Bielsko-Biala School of Finance and Law, 23(2), 14-28. https://www.asej.eu/index.php/asej/article/view/364
24. Ermasova, N., Cross, A. D., & Ermasova, E. (2020). Perceived stress and coping among law enforcement officers: an empirical analysis of patrol versus non-patrol officers in Illinois, USA. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 35, 48-63. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11896-019-09356-z
25. Facinek, A., & Kosc, I. (2021). Benefits of implementation of martial arts to police force. Друкується за рішенням оргкомітету відповідно до доручення Харківського національного університету внутрішніх справ від 30.08. 2021 № 103, 62. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Iryna-Skrypchenko/publication/361101813_Aktualni_problemi_rozvitku_sluzbovo-prikladnih_tradicijnih_ta_shidnih_odnoborstv_zb_nauk_pr_za_materialami_HV_Miznar_nauk-metod_konf_prisvac_pam'ati_d-ra_ped_nauk_profesora_Bizina_Viktora_Petrovica_m_/links/629cd2b26886635d5cc18b16/Aktualni-problemi-rozvitku-sluzbovo-prikladnih-tradicijnih-ta-shidnih-odnoborstv-zb-nauk-pr-za-materialami-HV-Miznar-nauk-metod-konf-prisvac-pamati-d-ra-ped-nauk-profesora-Bizina-Viktora-Petrovica.pdf#page=62
26. Farrer, D. S. (2019). Brazilian BJJ is therapy. Shifting subjectivities on Guam. Etnografia e Ricerca Qualitativa, 12(3), 407-428. https://www.rivisteweb.it/doi/10.3240/95531
27. Figueiredo, A. A., Błach, W., Bujak, Z., Maroteaux, R. J., & Cynarski, W. J. (2020). Martial arts tourism of the "Europe—Far East" direction, in the opinion of grand masters. Sustainability, 12(21), 8857.
28. Gardner, T. G., & Al-Shareffi, E. (2022). Regulating Police Chokeholds. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology Online, 112, 111. https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/jclconl112&div=6&id=&page=
29. Graves, F. R., & Connor, G. (1992). The FLETC use of force model. The Police Chief, 56, 58.
30. Harmon, N. L. (2022). An Exploratory Study of the Perceptions of Effectiveness for Brazilian Jiu Jitsu Training for Law Enforcement (Doctoral dissertation, North Dakota State University). https://www.proquest.com/openview/c67c026fc0ba22cbfb05371fce623e1e/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y
31. Hasan, M. (2021). Racist bullying of BAME (Black and Asian Minority Ethnic) women within police services in England: Race, gender and police culture. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 23(2), 182-195. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/14613557211004619
32. Hect, D. (2016). Impact of martial arts on law enforcement. LAP Lambert Academic Publishing.
33. Heusler, B., & Sutter, C. (2020). Gaze control and training for high-stress situations in law enforcement: A systematic review. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 35, 401-413. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11896-019-09338-1
34. Hickman, M. J., Scales, R. M., Strote, J. N., & Worrall, J. L. (2021). Use of vascular neck restraints in law enforcement: A case-study of Spokane, WA. Police Practice and Research, 22(6), 1668-1678.
35. Hickman, M. J., Strote, J. N., Scales, R. M., Parkin, W. S., & Collins, P. A. (2021). Police use of force and injury: Multilevel predictors of physical harm to subjects and officers. Police Quarterly, 24(3), 267-297.
36. Ho, J., Dawes, D. M., Kunz, S. N., Satpathy, R., Klein, L., Driver, B., & Stang, J. L. (2020). A comparative study of conducted electrical weapon incapacitation during a goal-directed task. Forensic Science, Medicine and Pathology, 16, 613-621. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12024-020-00284-7
37. Howe, C., Hennessy, S., Mercer, N., Vrikki, M., & Wheatley, L. (2019). Teacher–student dialogue during classroom teaching: Does it really impact on student outcomes?. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 28(4-5), 462-512.
38. Ivanovski, J., & Nedev, A. (2022). Modern approaches and methods in learning martial skills among the police. Security Horizons, 63. https://fb.uklo.edu.mk/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/2022/09/TOM-1.2022-konecen.pdf#page=63
39. Kaminski, R. J., & Martin, J. A. (2000). An analysis of police officer satisfaction with defense and control tactics. Policing: An international journal of police strategies & management.
40. Karaduman, E., Bostancı, Ö., Karakaş, F., Kabadayı, M., Yılmaz, A. K., Akyildiz, Z., ... & Fischetti, F. (2022). Pistol Shooting Performance Correlates with Respiratory Muscle Strength and Pulmonary Function in Police Cadets. Sustainability, 14(12), 7515.
41. Kavoura, A., Channon, A., & Kokkonen, M. (2021). "Just Existing Is Activism": Transgender experiences in martial arts. Sociology of Sport Journal, 39(2), 196-204.
42. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/PIJPSM-08-2020-0138/full/html
43. Kukić, F., Koropanovski, N., Janković, R., & Dopsaj, M. (2019). Effects of specialized physical education and additional aerobic training on aerobic endurance of police students. Человек. Спорт. Медицина, 19(S2), 58-64. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/effects-of-specialized-physical-education-and-additional-aerobic-training-on-aerobic-endurance-of-police-students
44. Lee, K., Song, I., & Choi, H. (2021). On the origin of baekje military martial arts and the path and inflow of Japanese military martial arts. International Journal of Military Affairs, 6(2), 1-10. http://www.j-institute.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/International-Journal-of-Military-Affairs_202162.pdf
45. Luttwak, E. (2001). Strategy: the logic of war and peace. Harvard University Press.
46. Lyons, K., Radburn, C., Orr, R., & Pope, R. (2017). A profile of injuries sustained by law enforcement officers: a critical review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(2), 142.
47. McLean, K., Alikhan, A., & Alpert, G. P. (2022). Re-examining the use of force continuum: Why resistance is not the only driver of use of force decisions. Police Quarterly.
48. McLean, K., Stoughton, S. W., & Alpert, G. P. (2022). Police uses of force in the USA: a wealth of theories and a lack of evidence. Cambridge Journal of Evidence-Based Policing, 6(3-4), 87-108. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41887-022-00078-7
49. Moreno, A. F., Karanika-Murray, M., Batista, P., Hill, R., Vilalta, S. R., & Oliveira-Silva, P. (2024). Resilience training programs with police forces: a systematic review. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 39(1), 227-252.
50. Morin, R., Parker, K., Stepler, R., & Mercer, A. (2017). Behind the badge. Pew Research Center, 11.
51. O'Brien, K., Vilchis, L., & Maritescu, C. (2019). Boyle Heights and the fight against gentrification as state violence. American Quarterly, 71(2), 389-396.
52. Parks, G. S. (2022). Martial arts as a remedy for racialized police violence. Ohio State Law Journal Online, 83, 41. https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/furth83&div=5&id=&page=
53. Piepiora, P., Maśliński, J., Gumienna, R., & Cynarski, W. (2020). Sport technique as a determinant of athletes' personality. Quality in Sport, 6(1), 33-43. https://apcz.umk.pl/QS/article/view/QS.2020.004
54. Reaves, B. A. (2015). Local police departments, 2013: Personnel, policies, and practices. NCJ, 248677, 1-21.
55. Renden, P. G., Landman, A., Savelsbergh, G. J., & Oudejans, R. R. (2015). Police arrest and self-defence skills: performance under anxiety of officers with and without additional experience in martial arts. Ergonomics, 58(9), 1496-1506.
56. Rinderer, M. (2022). Can Brazilian BJJ be a viable treatment option for law enforcement officers with PTSD? https://digitalcommons.du.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1463&context=capstone_masters
57. Rozenfeld, E. (2021). Korea's "Pushing Hands": The story behind the global cultural expansion of Korean martial arts. Asian Studies Review, 45(4), 576-593.
58. Schaeffer, C. (2024). Reducing Police Escalation in the Use of Force: Training Police Officers in Martial Arts.
59. Sosoo, E. E., MacCormack, J. K., & Neblett , E. W. Jr (2022). Psychophysiological and affective reactivity to vicarious police violence. Psychophysiology, 59(10), e14065.
60. Staller, M. S., & Korner, S. (2019). Commentary: complex motor learning and police training: applied, cognitive, and clinical perspectives. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2444.
61. Staller, M. S., & Körner, S. (2021). Regression, progression and renewal: The continuous redevelopment of expertise in police use of force coaching. European Journal for Security Research, 6(1), 105-120. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41125-020-00069-7
62. Staller, M. S., Körner, S., Heil, V., & Kecke, A. (2019). The negotiation of contact and pain in pedagogical settings: Police recruits preferred levels of contact in police use of force training. Journal of Martial Arts Research, 2(1), 12-12.
63. Staller, M. S., Müller, M., Christiansen, P., Zaiser, B., Körner, S., & Cole, J. C. (2019). Ego depletion and the use of force: Investigating the effects of ego depletion on police officers' intention to use force. Aggressive behavior, 45(2), 161-168.
64. Terrill, W., & Paoline III, E. A. (2013). Less lethal force policy and police officer perceptions: A multisite examination. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 40(10), 1109-1130.
65. Toh, S. M., & Cho, E. (2022). "Take a Break!": A qualitative study of shift-duty police officers' on-the-job breaks. Police Quarterly, 10986111221074907.
66. Torres, J. (2020). Predicting law enforcement confidence in going 'hands-on': The impact of martial arts training, use-of-force self-efficacy, motivation, and apprehensiveness. Police Practice and Research, 21(2), 187-203.
67. Vera Jiménez, J. C., Fernandez, F., Ayuso, J., & Lorente Acosta, J. A. (2019). Evaluation of the police operational tactical procedures for reducing officer injuries resulting from physical interventions in problematic arrests. The case of the Municipal Police of Cádiz (Spain). International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health, 33(1), 35-43. https://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.ojs-doi-10_13075_ijomeh_1896_01422
68. Walters, J., & Heine, M. (2021). Between 'Battlecade'and' UFC Redemption': The growth of mixed martial arts in Canada 1996–2013. The International Journal of the History of Sport, 38(5), 527-544.
69. Wang, X. (2020). The kinematics and surface electromyography characteristics of round kick of martial arts athletes. Molecular & Cellular Biomechanics, 17(4), 189-198.
70. Woody, R. H. (2005). The police culture: research implications for psychological services. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 36(5), 525-529.
71. Xu, T., Li, Y., Chen, X., Wang, J. L., & Zhang, G. D. (2020). Effect of physical activity volume on active coping style among martial arts practicing adolescents: The mediating role of self-efficacy and positive affect. Arch. Budo, 16, 315-324. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Zhang-Guodong-2/publication/348832878_Effect_of_physical_activity_volume_on_active_coping_style_among_martial_arts_practicing_adolescents_the_mediating_role_of_self-efficacy_and_positive_affect/links/6012312392851c2d4dfb6fea/Effect-of-physical-activity-volume-on-active-coping-style-among-martial-arts-practicing-adolescents-the-mediating-role-of-self-efficacy-and-positive-affect.pdf
72. Zavala, E., & Chan, L. (2021). Promoting optimal well‐being among law enforcement employees. Positive Organizational Psychology Interventions: Design and Evaluation, 159-168.
73. Zhang, X. (2022). Design and application of online teaching system of police physical education based on web application development. In 2022 2nd International Conference on Education, Information Management and Service Science (EIMSS 2022) (pp. 349-357). Atlantis Press. https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/eimss-22/125978158.
 

The International Journal of Martial Arts & Sports

1410 Deokyoung-daero, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea. Posial Code: 16684
E-mail : injoma2013@gmail.com

Copyright@2013 INJOMA. All rights reserved.