The martial arts and embodied distress tolerance in psychological therapy
Abstract
Conflict is common within the psychological therapy space. This paper explores the potential effects of anger upon the therapeutic relationship, types of anger, and how therapists successfully engage with and act skilfully in the face of client anger, including critical and rejecting feelings by the therapist towards clients. We will then introduce the concept of social safeness as affording engagement and action in the context of compassion, before considering the role of the martial arts in managing the self and others as part of talking therapies. We conclude that the literature points to the utility of what we have termed radically embodied compassion, which involves training the whole of the therapist, rather than solely their intellect, so that they are able to tolerate and work with the fullest range of human experience.
Keywords:
martial arts, psychotherapy, anger, distress tolerance, compassionReferences
- Acarón, T. (2018). Movement decision-making in violence prevention and peace practices. Journal of Peace Education, 15(2), 191-215. DOI: 10.1080/17400201.2018.1463913 [https://doi.org/10.1080/17400201.2018.1463913]
- Ardito, R. B. & Rabellino, D. (2011) Therapeutic Alliance and Outcome of Psychotherapy: Historical Excursus, Measurements, and Prospects for Research. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 270. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00270 [https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00270]
- Barber, J. P., Muran, J. C., McCarthy, K. S., Keefe, & R. J. (2013). Research on Psychodynamic Therapies. In M. J. Lambert (Ed.). Bergin and Garfield's Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change (6th ed.) (pp. 443-494). New-York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
- Barnfield, A. (2003). Observational Learning In The Martial Art Studio: Instructors As Models of Positive Behaviors. Journal of Asian Martial Arts, 12(3).
- Binder, J. L., & Strupp, H. H. (1997). “Negative process”: A recurrently discovered and underestimated facet of therapeutic process and outcome in the individual psychotherapy of adults. Clinical psychology: Science and practice, 4(2), 121-139. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2850.1997.tb00105.x]
- Bordin, E. S. (1979). The generalizability of the psychoanalytic concept of the working alliance. Psychotherapy: Theory, research & practice, 16(3), 252. [https://doi.org/10.1037/h0085885]
- Bugental, J. F. T. (1978). Psychotherapy and process. New York: McGraw-Hill
- Butler, M. H., Meloy‐Miller, K. C., Seedall, R. B., & Dicus, J. L. (2018). Anger can help: A transactional model and three pathways of the experience and expression of anger. Family process, 57(3), 817-835. [https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12311]
- Dalenberg, C. J. (2004). Maintaining the safe and effective therapeutic relationship in the context of distrust and anger: Countertransference and complex trauma. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice & Training, 41(4), 438. [https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-3204.41.4.438]
- Eddy, M. (2009). A brief history of somatic practices and dance: historical development of the field of somatic education and its relationship to dance. Journal of Dance and Somatic Practices, 1 (1), 5–27. [https://doi.org/10.1386/jdsp.1.1.5_1]
- Eubanks-Carter, C. F., Muran, J. C., & Safran, J. D. (2014). Rupture resolution rating system (3RS): Manual.
- Eubanks-Carter, C., Muran, J. C., & Safran, J. D. (2015). Alliance-focused training. Psychotherapy, 52(2), 169. [https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037596]
- Faggianelli, P., & Lukoff, D. (2006). Aikido and psychotherapy: A study of psychotherapists who are Aikido practitioners. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 38(2), 159.
- Finkenberg, M. E. (1990). Effect of participation in Taekwondo on college women's selfconcept. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 71(3, Pt 1), 891-894.Focht et al. 2000 [https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1990.71.3.891]
- Foster, D. (2015). Fighters who don’t fight: The case of aikido and somatic metaphorism. Qualitative Sociology, 38(2), 165-183. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s11133-015-9305-4]
- Frager, R. (1977). Aikido–A Japanese approach to self-development and mind-body harmony. In C.Garfield (Ed.), Rediscovery of the body (pp. 171–183). New York, NY: Del
- Friedman, H. L. (2016). Using Aikido and transpersonal psychology concepts as tools for reconciling conflict: focus on Aikido and related martial arts, such as Hapkido. NeuroQuantology, 14(2). [https://doi.org/10.14704/nq.2016.14.2.938]
- Fuller, J. R. (1998) Martial Arts and Psychological Health. British Journal of British Psychology. 64: p. 317‐328. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8341.1988.tb02794.x]
- Geller, S. M., & Porges, S. W. (2014). Therapeutic presence: Neurophysiological mechanisms mediating feeling safe in therapeutic relationships. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 24(3), 178. [https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037511]
- Gilbert, P. (2007). Evolved minds and compassion in the therapeutic relationship. In The therapeutic relationship in the cognitive behavioral psychotherapies (pp. 122-158). Routledge. [https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203099995]
- Gilbert, P. (2009). Introducing compassion-focused therapy. Advances in psychiatric treatment, 15(3), 199-208. [https://doi.org/10.1192/apt.bp.107.005264]
- Gilbert, P. (2010). Compassion focused therapy: The CBT distinctive features series. London, UK: Routledge. [https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203851197]
- Gilbert, P (2015) The Evolution and Social Dynamics of Compassion. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, Vol 9, 6, 239-254. [https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12176]
- Gilbert, P., & Choden (2013). Mindful compassion. London: Constable and Robinson.
- Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., Mitra, R., Franks, L., Richter, A., & Rockliff, H. (2008). Feeling safe and content: A specific affect regulation system? Relationship to depression, anxiety, stress, and self-criticism. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 3(3), 182-191. [https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760801999461]
- Gleser, J., & Brown, P. (1988). Judo principles and practices: Applications to conflict-solving strategies in psychotherapy. American journal of psychotherapy, 42(3), 437-447. [https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1988.42.3.437]
- Greenberg, L. S., & Goldman, R. N. (2008). Emotion-focused couples therapy: The dynamics of emotion, love, and power. Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/11750-000 [https://doi.org/10.1037/11750-000]
- Hackney, C. (2011). Martial virtues: lessons in wisdom, courage, and compassion from the world's greatest warriors. Tuttle Publishing.
- Hackney, C. H. (2006). Reflections on audatia as a martial virtue. Journal of Western Martial Art.
- Hackney, C. H. (2013). Martial arts as a pathway to flourishing. In Positive Psychology (pp. 145-158). Springer, New York, NY. [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7282-7_10]
- Higgins, E. T., (2012). Beyond pleasure and pain: How motivation works. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. [https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199765829.001.0001]
- Higgins, E. T., Kruglanski, A. W., & Pierro, A. (2003). Regulatory Mode: Locomotion and Assessment as Distinct Orientations. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, Vol. 35, pp. 293-344). San Diego, CA, US: Elsevier Academic Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(03)01005-0 [https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(03)01005-0]
- Hill, C. E., Kellems, I. S., Kolchakian, M. R., Wonnell, T. L., Davis, T. L., & Nakayama, E. Y. (2003). The therapist experience of being the target of hostile versus suspectedunasserted client anger: Factors associated with resolution. Psychotherapy Research, 13(4), 475-491. [https://doi.org/10.1093/ptr/kpg040]
- Johnstone, A., & Marí-Beffa, P. (2018). The effects of martial arts training on attentional networks in typical adults. Frontiers in psychology, 9, 80. [https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00080]
- Kamen, R. K. (2017) Karate: Beneath The Surface: Emotional Content of Kata. Kamen Entertainment Group, NY: USA.
- Kelly, A. C., & Dupasquier, J. (2016). Social safeness mediates the relationship between recalled parental warmth and the capacity for self-compassion and receiving compassion. Personality and Individual Differences, 89, 157-161. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.10.017]
- Kolts, R. (2012). The Compassionate Mind Approach to Managing Your Anger: Using Compassion-focused Therapy. Hachette UK.
- Korman, L. M. (2005). Treating anger and addictions concurrently. In W. J. Skinner (Ed.), Treating concurrent disorders: A guide for counselors (pp. 215–234). Toronto: Centre for Addiction and Mental Health.
- Kramer, U., Pascual‐Leone, A., Berthoud, L., De Roten, Y., Marquet, P., Kolly, S., ... & Page, D. (2016). Assertive anger mediates effects of dialectical behaviour‐informed skills training for borderline personality disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Clinical psychology & psychotherapy, 23(3), 189-202. [https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.1956]
- Lakes, K. D., & Hoyt, W. T. (2004). Promoting self-regulation through school-based martial arts training. Applied Developmental Psychology, 25, 283-302. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2004.04.002]
- Linehan, M. M. (1993). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. New York: Guilford Press.
- Masters, R. A. (2000). Compassionate wrath: Transpersonal approaches to anger. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 32(1), 31-52.
- Matsakis, A. (1998). Managing Client Anger: What to Do when a Client is Angry with You. New Harbinger Publications.
- Meloy-Miller, K. C., Butler, M. H., Seedall, R. B., & Spencer, T. J. (2018). Anger can help: Clinical representation of three pathways of anger. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 46(1), 44-66. [https://doi.org/10.1080/01926187.2018.1428130]
- Miller-Bottome, M., Talia, A., Safran, J. D., & Muran, J. C. (2018). Resolving alliance ruptures from an attachment-informed perspective, Psychoanalytic Psychology, 35(2), 175 [https://doi.org/10.1037/pap0000152]
- Muntigl, P., & Horvath, A. O. (2014). The therapeutic relationship in action: How therapists and clients co-manage relational disaffiliation. Psychotherapy Research, 24(3), 327-345. [https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2013.807525]
- Muntigl, P., Knight, N., Watkins, A., Horvath, A. O., & Angus, L. (2013). Active retreating: Person-centered practices to repair disaffiliation in therapy. Journal of Pragmatics, 53, 1-20. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2013.03.019]
- Oulanova, O. (2009). Healing through the martial way: Incorporating karate training into counselling and psychotherapy. Body, Movement and Dance in Psychotherapy, 4(1), 45-57. [https://doi.org/10.1080/17432970802097978]
- Paivio, S. C. (1999). Experiential conceptualization and treatment of anger. Journal of clinical psychology, 55(3), 311-324. [https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(199903)55:3<311::AID-JCLP4>3.0.CO;2-Y]
- Pascual-Leone, A., Gilles, P., Singh, T., & Andreescu, C. A. (2013). Problem anger in psychotherapy: An emotion-focused perspective on hate, rage, and rejecting anger. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 43(2), 83-92. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s10879-012-9214-8]
- Pope, K. S., & Tabachnick, B. G. (1993). Therapists' anger, hate, fear, and sexual feelings: National survey of therapist responses, client characteristics, critical events, formal complaints, and training. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 24(2), 142. [https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.24.2.142]
- Porges, S. W. (2007). The polyvagal perspective. Biological psychology, 74(2), 116-143. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.06.009]
- Richman, C. L. & Rehberg, H. (1986) The development of self-esteem through the martial arts. International Journal of Sports Psychology, 17(3), 234-239.
- Rosenberg, V., & Sapochnik, C. (2005). Martial arts – enactment of aggression or integrative space? Psychodynamic Practice, 451-458, 11 (4) doi: 10.1080/14753630500385681 [https://doi.org/10.1080/14753630500385681]
- Safran, J. D., & Muran, J. C. (2000). Negotiating the therapeutic alliance: A relational treatment guide. New York: Guilford Press.
- Safran, J. D., Muran, J. C., & Eubanks-Carter, C. (2011). Repairing alliance ruptures. Psychotherapy, 48, 80 – 87. doi:10.1037/a0022140 [https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022140]
- Safran, J. D., Muran, J. C., & Samstag, L. (1994). Resolving therapeutic alliance ruptures: A task analytic investigation. In A. O. Horvath & L. S. Greenberg (Eds.), The working alliance: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 225–255). New York, NY: Wiley.
- Salzberg, S. (2012) “Fierce Compassion.” Huffington Post. August 14, 2012. Accessed February 15, 2015, www.huffingtonpost.com/sharon-salzberg/fierce-compassion
- Seitz, F. C., Olson, G. D., Locke, B., & Quam, R. (1990). The martial arts and mental health: The challenge of managing energy. Perceptual and motor Skills, 70(2), 459-464. [https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1990.70.2.459]
- Serlin, Ilene A., Miriam Roskin Berger, and Ruth Bar-Sinai. 2007. “Moving through Conflict: Understanding Personal and Cultural Differences through Movement Style.” Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 47 (3): 367–375. doi:10.1177/0022167807301894. [https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167807301894]
- Sharkin, B. S., & Gelso, C. J. (1993). The influence of counselor trainee anger‐proneness and anger discomfort on reactions to an angry client. Journal of Counseling & Development, 71(5), 483-487. [https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.1993.tb02229.x]
- Staller, M. S., Zaiser, B., Körner, S., & Cole, J. C. (2017). Threat-related attentional biases in police officers and martial artists: investigating potential differences using the EStroop and dot probe task. Sage open, 7(2), 2158244017712776. [https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244017712776]
- Stern, D., Sander, L. W., Nahum, J., Marrison, A. M., Lyons-Ruth, K., Morgan A., Bruschweiler-Stern, N. & Tronick, E. (1998). Non-interpretative mechanisms in psychoanalytic therapy: the “something more” than interpretation. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 79, 303–36.
- Tronick, E. Z. (1989). Emotions and emotional communication in infants. American psychologist, 44(2), 112. [https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.2.112]
- Twemlow, S. W. (2001). Training psychotherapists in attributes of “mind” from Zen and psychoanalytic perspectives, Part I: Core principles, emptiness, impermanence, and paradox. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 55(1), 1-21. [https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2001.55.1.1]
- Twemlow, S. W. (2001). Training psychotherapists in attributes of “mind” from Zen and psychoanalytic perspectives, part II: attention, here and now, nonattachment, and compassion. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 55(1), 22-39. [https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2001.55.1.22]
- Twemlow, S. W., Sacco, F. C., & Fonagy, P. (2008). Embodying the mind: Movement as a container for destructive aggression. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 62(1), 1-33. [https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2008.62.1.1]
- Ueshiba, M., & Stevens, J. (1992). The Art of Peace Teachings of the Founder of Aikido. Shambala Pocket Classics.
- Webb, C. E., Franks, B., Romero, T., Higgins, E. T., & De Waal, F. B. (2014). Individual differences in chimpanzee reconciliation relate to social switching behaviour. Animal Behaviour, 90, 57-63. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.01.014]
- Webb, C. E., Coleman, P. T., Rossignac-Milon, M., Tomasulo, S. J., & Higgins, E. T. (2017). Moving on or digging deeper: Regulatory mode and interpersonal conflict resolution. Journal of personality and social psychology, 112(4), 621. [https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000131]
- Weiser, M., Kutz, I., Kutz, S. J., & Weiser, D. (1995). Psychotherapeutic aspects of the martial arts. American journal of psychotherapy, 49(1), 118-127. [https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1995.49.1.118]